What are the major word formation processes in English?

The following are the ways by which new words are formed in English. 

Derivation 

Derivation is a process of forming new words according to fairly regular pattern on the basis of pre-existing words.

If we analyse the process of derivation in more detail we will notice that a step in a derivation is usually not on process but 3 semantinal process namely-

a)      morphological process

b)      semantic process

c)      syntactic process

Major word formation processes in English are:-

1) Affixation-

One of the commonest methods of word making in English is called Affixation. Affixation is accomplished by means of a large number of small bits of the English language which are not usually given in listings in the dictionary. These small bits are called affix and the process is known as affixation. A few examples are the elements un, mis, pre, less ish etc which appear in words like unhappy, misrepresent, pre-paid, boyish, terrorism etc.

In the preceding groups of words it should be obvious that some affixes had to be added to the beginning of a word. For example- “un”. These are called prefixes and the process is known as prefixation. The other affix forms are added to the end of the word, for example, “ism” and these are called suffixes. The process involved here is called suffixation. All English words formed by the derivational process of affixation used either prefixes or suffixes or both. Thus “mislead” has a prefix, “disrespectful” has both prefix and suffix and “likeliness” has two suffixes.   

The English language has made generous use of prefixes and suffixes to make new words or to modify or to extend the root idea. But there are some important differences between prefixes and suffixes. Prefixes are put before a word whereas suffixes are put in the end of a word. Another important difference between them is that prefixes mostly have a meaning of their own, though they are not generally used as separate words, whereas suffixes are used only to modify the root idea of a word or to convert the word into another part of speech. For example, if we add a prefix to the word “author” we’ll get “co-author”. Here the root idea is not modified and moreover the word class is unchanged. But by suffixation we get a new word authorship. Here we get a new word.

Acronyms

Some new words are formed from the initial letters of a set of other words. These are called acronyms. For example-SARS, NASA, NATO, UN. Acronyms can loose their initials become everyday terms such as LASER, SCUBA (self-continued underwater breathing asparagus)etc.

Backformation

A very especialised type of reduction process is known as backformation. Typically a word of one type (usually a noun) is reduced to form another word of a different type( usually overt). For example, televise for television, emote from emotion, enthuse from enthusiasm, edit from editor etc.

Conversion

A change in the function of a word, as for example when a noun comes to be used as a verb without any reduction is generally known as conversion. Other lebels for this very common process are category change and functional shift. A number of nouns such as paper, butter, bottle etc can via the process of conversation come to be used as verb as in the following sentences-

He is papering the bedroom walls

Have you buttered the toast?

He is tutoring the students.

Compounding

One of the commonest ways of making a new word is to join two or more element, each of which is also used as separate word. This method of forming new word is called composition or compounding, and the words thus formed are called compounds. For example brainwash, headache, sleep walking, day dreamer, self control etc.

Words made from the names of places and persons:-

Another prolific source of word formation in English is the derivation of new words from the names of places, persons and characters in famous books. For example; the word sandwitch comes from the name of the Earl of Sandwitch. Cardigan comes from the Earl of Cardigan. Quicksotic comes from Don Quicksotc. The word solomon as a substitute for wisdom originates from the Bible.

Portmantaau words:-

This process is comparatively a new comer in the scenario of word generation. This is of noble nature in comparison with other forms of word formation. Too different and independent lexical entries are blended together by subtracting the front portion of a word and a back portion of another. The word thus formed are called Portmantaau words; for example; happenstance (happening+circumstance); workaholic(work+alcoholic);wevzine(web-sight+magazine); Internet(International+Network) etc.

The difference between inflection and derivation

Both derivation and inflection makes word but derivation makes a new word. For example, respect->respectful; good-> goodness etc. But inflection merely changes the relation of case, number, gender, person and pens. For example

dog-  dogs-    dogs

            plural   possessive

look-  looks-   looks

In English prefixes are always derivational.

What are inflection and derivation in English language? What are the differences between inflection and derivation?

Inflection is the process of adding an “affix” to a word or changing it in some other way according to the rules of the grammar of a language. Inflectional morphology studies the way in which words vary in order to express grammatical contrasts in sentences such singular/ plural or present/ past tense. Boy and boys, for example, are two forms of the same word; the choice between them, singular or plural, is a matter of grammar.  This is the business of inflectional morphology.

Derivation is the formation of new words by adding “affixes” to other words or morphemes.  Derivational morphology studies the principles governing the construction of new words. In the formation of “eatable” from “eat”, or “disagree” from “agree”, for example, we see the formation of different words, with their own grammatical properties.

Differences

Both inflectional and derivational morphemes are suffixes. They are bound morphemes following a root. Inflection and derivation are therefore, the sub-categories of suffixes. But they differ from each other.

(1)     In inflection “suffix” is affixed to a root. For example, in “agreed” and “agrees,” “d” and “s” are suffixes and do not allow any further affixation of a suffix. Such suffixes which we do not allow further affixation are called inflections or inflectional suffixes. The suffixes which may be followed by other suffixes are called derivational suffixes. For example, “ment” “able” are derivational suffixes in “agreement” and “agreeable” because both can be followed by other suffixes and can, for instance, become “agreements” and “agreeableness” after the addition of the suffixes “s” and “ness” to agree+ment and agree+able respectively. Here

(2)     We have to remember that prefixes are always derivational. For instance, in the words; disobey, impossible, etc “dis” and “im” are prefixes. Since “dis” and “im” help to construct new words “obey” and “possible” they are derivational.

(3)     Inflectional suffixes are “terminal”(ending) and their termination never changes the class (parts of speech) of the root, for example in “sweeter” and “sweetest”, the termination of –“er” by “est” does not change the parts of speech; both the form remain adjectives. “come” is a verb in “they come late” and if  we add an inflectional suffix “ing” we get the form “coming” as in they are coming which is still a verb.

(4)     An inflected form can be  replaced by another inflected form only

For example:

He       drink+s

                                   steal+s

                                   play+s

but not

He drink/steal/play etc.

(5)     An inflectional suffix occurs at the end position of a form; no further affixation in a form is possible after an inflection. We can say:

Develop +s

 root       +s -inflectional suffix

develop+      ment              +s

(root     +derivational suffix+s-inflectional suffix)

but not

develop +       s             +     ment

root           inflectional      derivational

                     suffix              suffix

So, an inflectional suffix is essentially terminal whereas a derivational suffix is not essentially terminal. Derivational suffixes can occur medially and finally but inflectional suffixes occur only finally.

Class –maintaining and class-changing derivational suffixes

Derivational suffixes can be sub-classified into two types:

(1) class-maintaining derivational suffix.

(2) class-changing derivational suffix.

The classes maintaining derivational suffixes are those which produce a derived form of the same class as the underling form, they do not change the class of a part speech. In boyhood, childhood, kinship, friendship, “hood” and “ship” are class-maintaining derivational suffixes. In these examples they produce nouns out of nouns by after suffixation. The class changing derivations are those that produce a derived form of another class. In teacher, boyish, development, national “er” “ish” “ment” “al” are class-changing derivational suffixes. In teacher a verb “teach” has become a noun after suffixing the “er”. In “boyish,” a noun “boy” has become an adjective after suffixing the “ish”. So, it is seen that the derivational suffixes “er” and “ish” change the class of root.

What is Syllabus Design? How is it Related to and Different from Curriculum Development?

There is a confusion over the terms “syllabus” and curriculum” Some specialists assume that these two words are synonymous. But, there are some differences between these two terms concerning their working field. Candlin, a prominent linguist suggests that curriculums are concerned with making general statements about language learning, purpose and experience, evaluation and the role relationship of teachers and learners. They will contain bank of learning items and suggestions about how these might be used in the class. On the other hand syllabuses are more localized, and are based on accounts and records of what actually happens at the class level, as teachers and learners apply a give curriculum to their own situation.

A curriculum of an educational institution can be studied from three main perspectives- (1) identifying students’ needs and goals or “Planning Phase”(2) observing the teaching/ learning process to study how the intentions of the curriculum plans have been implemented in classroom or “Implementation Phase,” (3) Finding out what students have learned and have failed to learn in relation to what had been planned or “Evaluation phase”/ It is important that, in the planning, implementation and evaluation of a given curriculum, all elements be integrated, so that decisions made at one phase are not in conflict with these made at another.

On the other hand, syllabus design concerns the followingL1) whether the content is communicable (2) objectives(goals/ purposes of learning) (3) social belief, (4) practical specification (5) capability of the teacher etc. In developing a language program the above components are essential to be considered in an ideal syllabus.

It is possible to distinguish a broad and a narrow approach to syllabus design. According to the supporters of a narrow view; syllabus design is seen as being concerned essentially with the selection and grading of content, while methodology is concerned with the selection of learning tasks and activities. Thus, the former is concerned with the “WHAT” of curriculum; the latter is concerned with the “HOW” of establishing the curriculum. On the other hand, those who adopt a broader view question this strict separation arguing that with the advent of communicative language teaching the distinction between content and tasks is difficult to sustain.

Therefore, it can be said that traditionally syllabus design has been seen as a subsidiary component of curriculum design. In brief, the distinction between the two is that, curriculum is a very general concept which involves consideration of the whole complex of philosophical, social and administrative factors which contribute to the planning of an educational program, implementation and evaluation.

Syllabus on the other hand refers to that subpart of curriculum which is concerned with a specification of what units will be taught.

So, syllabus design is essential concerned with the selection of materials and grading. S. D generally refers to procedures for deciding what will be taught in a language program.

Therefore, curriculum is a larger field while syllabus design is a smaller one. SD focuses more narrowly on the selection of content and grading.

Differences between a Synthetic and an Analytic Syllabus

Product Oriented syllabuses are those in which the focus is on the knowledge and skills that the learner should gain as a result of the instructions that are given to the learner. While Process-oriented syllabuses are those in which the focus is on the process the learner experiences themselves.

Every syllabus is both product-oriented as well as process- oriented. But the difference is created because of the emphasis on any one of them while designing a syllabus. In a product-oriented syllabus the emphasis is on the out-put; the concentration is towards the goal. In a process- oriented syllabus, the emphasis is on the process, the series of action is important. A syllabus is successful if it can be implemented. This implementation is the process.

Synthetic Syllabus: Synthetic syllabus is the one in which the different parts of language is taught separately and step by step in additive fashion. So that the learner’s acquisition face a process of gradual accumulation of parts until the whole structure of the language has been built up. Grammatical criterions are used to break the language into discrete units. These items are graded according to their (1) grammatical contexts (2) fluency of occurrence (3) contrastive difficulty in relation to L1 (4) situation need and (5) pedagogic convenience. Some applied linguists assume that the synthetic syllabuses should not be restricted to only grammatical syllabus rather it can be applied to any syllabus whose content is product-oriented.

Analytic Syllabus:-

Analytic syllabus is organized in terms of the purposes for which the learner is learning the language and the kind of performance that are necessary to meet these purposes.

The starting point for syllabus design is not the grammatical system of the language but the communicative purpose for which language is used. The language and content are drawn from the input and are selected and graded primarily according to what the learner’s need to do the real world communicative task. In the task, linguistic knowledge that is built through the unit is applied to the solving of a communicative problem. The content in the analytic syllabus is defined in terms of situation, topics, items and other academic or school subjects.

The distinction between the synthetic and analytic syllabus is that the former views that nature of learning is additive while later views that the nature of learning is holistic (having regard to the whole of sth rather than just to parts of it.)