Machiavelli's Concept of Rulership in 'The Prince'

The Prince is the best-known work of Niccolò Machiavelli, in which he asserts that a prince must use cunning and ruthless methods to stay in power.It was written around 1513, but not published until 1532, five years after Machiavelli's death.

The political philosophy contained in this book is mainly based on the principles of rulership.The theories expressed in The Prince are often venerated as very insightful and shrewd methods an aspiring prince can use to gain the throne, or an existing prince can use to establish and maintain his reign.According to Machiavelli, moral principles must yield to every circumstance and the Prince must be willing to do anything necessary to maintain power.It seems that Machiavelli disregards the connection between ethics and politics, which disturbed many of his contemporaries.The prince should endeavor to be seen as compassionate, trustworthy, sympathetic, honest, and religious. But in reality, the duties of the Prince very rarely allow him to actually be compassionate, etc.The Prince seems to justify a number of actions done merely to perpetuate power.

It is a classic study of power - how to get it, expand it and use it for maximum effect.In The Prince Niccolo Machiavelli makes an effort to discover from history and contemporary events,how principalities are won,how they are held,and how they are lost.In this book he gives an example of a state or principality in which one ruler or a small elite governs the subjects who have no active political life.Machiavelli's philosophy in The Prince is scientific and empirical,based on his own experience of affairs.He talked about some political ends,regardless of the question whether the ends are to be considered good or bad.

Plato’s Theory of an Ideal State

In his most celebrated book the Republic, Plato gives the theory of an ideal state. As far as a state is concerned,Plato gives ideas about how to build an Ideal commonwealth, who should be the rulers of the Ideal state and how to achieve justice in the Ideal state. Plato finds the state as the more suitable place to discuss about the morality than an individual, because everything is easier to see in the large than in the small. A state , says Plato , is a man ‘writ’ large against the sky.The elements that make up a city correspond to the elements that constitute the individual human soul.

The justice of the city is the same as it is for the individual.For Plato,there is not one morality for the individuals and another for the state. Like the tripartite individual human soul every state has three parts which are its three classes.

The elements that constitute the human soul are as follows:

1.Bodily appetite,

2. Spirited elements

3. Reason

Like the tripartite individual human soul ,every state has three parts such as-

1. Producer class

2.Military class

3. Ruling classs

Plato finds the origin of the state in the various needs of people.Noboby is self-sufficient.So,to meet the various needs men created the political institution.To Plato,in the beginning there was only one class namely the producing class.Then emerged the guardian class.From the guardian class emerged the ruling class.

In a state the producer class will consist of those people to whom the bodily appetites are dominant and who live for money . The producer class is made up of farmer, blacksmiths, fishermen, carpenters áshoe –makers,weavers,labourers,merchants,retailers and bankers.The life of the producer class is much easier than the life of the rulers or the guardians.The life of the produce class follows the old familiar patterns of home and property,family and children,work ,rest,and recreation.By nature the producers have money.

Each member of the producer class will be educated by being taught a trade or a profession –farming,banking,carpentry-according to his or her capabilities and to the needs of the society,both of which will be determined by the guardians.

The military class will be drawn from that type of men to whom the spirited element is dominant and who live for success in aggressive and courageous acts. The members of the ruling class will be drawn from that type of man to whom reason is dominant and who lives only for truth.A state should be ruled only by the elite group of the most rational.In the ideal state each of these three classes will perform a vital function on behalf of the organic totality of the state.

Selection of the ruling class

Plato gives most emphasis on the selection of the ruling calss.The selection of the ruling class is from all classes by natural intellectual capacity. women as well as men possess the natural capacity of intelligence to become members of the ruling class.

Plato proposes that an ideal state will be governed by a person who is highly educated, has passion for truth and has achieved the greatest wisdom of knowledge of the good. The ruler of this ideal state is called the Philosopher king.

The Philosopher king has several important functions to perform. The rulers, said Plato, should be the one who has been fully educated, one who has come to understand the difference between the visible world and the invisible world, between the realm of opinion and the realm of knowledge, between appearance and reality. The Philosopher king is one whose education, in short, has led him up step by step through the ascending degrees of knowledge of the Divided line until at last he has a knowledge of the good.

To reach this point, the Philosopher King will have progressed through many stages of education. By the time he is eighteen years old, he will have had training in literature, music and elementery mathametics. His literature would be censored. Music also would be prescribed so that seduction music would be replaced by a more wholesome, martial meter. For the next few years there would be extensive physical and mililary training.At the age twenty a few would be selected to persue an advanced course in mathematics. At age thirty, a five year course in dialectic and moral philosophy would begin. The next fifteen years would be spent gathering practical experience through public service. Finally, at age fifty, the ablest men would reach the highest level of knowledge, the vision of the good and would then be ready for the task of governing the state.

Both the ruling class and the military class are forbidden to possess any private property or any money. They must live, men and women like soldiers in barracks, with common meals and sleeping quaters. Their food, clothing and equipment will be provided by the producers. This food must be simple and restricted to moderate quantities. They are too have no family life, in order to aviod any conflict between family loyalties and their loyalty to the state.

When they are at the physical prime of life, their sexual gratification is restricted to officially designated and infrequent occasions on which they are required to breed children to maintain the number of the guardian class. These occasions Plato calls sacred Marriage which are temporary unions for the sake of producing children.

Justice in the state

Like the the human soul, the justice will be achieved in a state when each class fulfils their respective functions.Justice is a general virtue. It means that all parts are fulfilling their special functions. As the craftsmen embody the element of appetite, they will also reflect the virtue of temperance. Temperance is not limited to the craftsmen but applies to all the classes, for it indicates, when it is achieved, the willingness of the lower to be rulled by the higher. Still temperance applies in a special way to the craftsmen subordinate to the two higher levels.

The guardians, who defend the state, manifest the virtue of courage. To assure the state that these guardians will always fulfill their funtions. Special training and provision are made for them. Unlike the craftsmen, who marry and own property, the guardians will have both property and wives in common. Plato considred these arrangements essential if the guardians were to attain true courage, for courage means knowing what to fear and what not to fear. The only real object of fear for the guardian should be fear of moral evil. He must never fear proverty and privation, and for this reason mode of life should be isolated from possessions.

Thus,in his Republic Plato gives the theory of an ideal state.But later the theory of the ideal state was severely criticized by Aristotle.

Similarities and Differences between Plato and Aristotle on Political Theories

Plato is regarded as the first writer of political philosophy, and Aristotle is recognized as the first political scientist. These two men were great political thinkers. There are a lot of differences between the two even though Aristotle was a great student of Plato. They each had ideas of how to improve existing societies during their individual lifetimes. It is necessary to look at several areas of each theory to seek the difference in each. There are some similarities too, but first we will discuss the differences.

The main focus of Plato is a perfect society. He creates a blueprint for a utopian society, in his book The Republic, out of his disdain for the tension of political life.Plato sought to cure the afflictions of both human society and human personality. Essentially what Plato wants to achieve is a perfect society.

Aristotle, unlike Plato, is not concerned with perfecting society. He just wants to improve on the existing one. Rather than produce a blueprint for the perfect society, Aristotle suggested, in his work, The Politics, that the society itself should reach for the best possible system that could be attained .Aristotle looks to the ideals which are expressed in the laws,customs,and public opinion of the people of the actual states;these are the materials which politics must respect ,work with,and seek to improve.In short,all that has to be done is to try to improve on the existing one.

Plato's utopia consists of three distinct classes:the producers,the auxiliaries and the rulers or guardians. The Guardians are to be wise and good rulers. The guardians are to be placed in a position in which they are absolute rulers. They are supposed to be the select few who know what is best for society.

Aristotle puts a high value on moderatio.He finds the polity,which is a mean between oligarchy and democracy ,as the most workable system of government.The polity is the rule of those with property ,as in oligarchy,but the property qualification is low ,so that the majority of the citizens have a share in government,as in democracy.The polity is in effect ruled by a large middle class;it will provide ,Aristotle believes,a stable,well-administered foundation for the state,since this class is composed of equals and similars of moderate means,who are most likely to follow the rational principles.

Aristotle rejects the political absolutism of Plato,even though the despots are philosophers kings.For Aristotle a good society is one in which the constitution is sovereign and the relation between the ruler to ruled is that of freemen,who are morally equal.

Aristotle also rejects Plato’s radical ablition of private property and the family for the ruling class.Aristotle supports the institution of family.

Aristotle’s fundamental oposition to Plato’s theory is that it constructs an unattainable ,speculative ideal with which it undertakes a criticism of existin states.Aristotle rejects the political theory expressed in Plato’s Republic on the ground that it is too speculative,too utopian,too far removed from the actual city states and their forms of government.There is so much of Plato's utopia that is undefined and it is carried to extremes that no human being could ever fulfill its requirements.

But there are major areas of agreement between Plato and Aristotle on political theory.Like Plato ,Aristotle views the state as having a moral end or purpose:the highest possible moral development and happiness if its citizens.Also,like Plato,Aristotle regards the state as having primacy over the family and over the individuals.The state is a self-sufficient whole,wherears the family and the individual have no self-sufficiency but are only parts dependent upon the social life of the state.It is only in the state that the virtues of the individual are developed and functional and the good life,the life of happiness ,can be lived.Aristotle also initially follows Plato’s classification of types of government into three good and three bad states according to the number of the rulers.

They both had well thought out ideas and plans on how to build a better society. Both Aristotle and Plato have had a tremendous impact on political scientists of today. Aristotle helped to develope some democratic ideas. In conclusion these men were great thinkers. Their opinions on society and its functions were quite different, but they both had the same intention, to build a better way of life for the societies they lived in and for the societies that would come to be in the future.

John Locke as the Father of Modern Democracy

John Locke is frequently called the father of modern democracy for his political theory that he developed in Two Treatises of Civil Government (1680-1690). Of the two treatises, the second treatise is specially important in the history of political philosophy. The second treatise was published just one year after the Glorious Revolution of 1688 and the treatise also justifies the revolution. The political philosophy Locke developed in this work is highly democratic and had much influence on English politics and also on the American constitution. The relationship between the ruler and the ruled he proposes here is of more democratic than any other theories given before him. The ideas that he discusses include equality of men,the consent of the majority,the division of power and the right to rebellion.

State of nature and the equality of men

Locke begins his political philosophy with the treatment of the state of nature.He describes the condition very differently from his contemporary political thinker Hobbes.To Locke the state of nature is not the war of all against all as described by Hobbes.On the other hand men living together according to their reason without a common superior on earth with an authority to judge between them is termed by Locke as the proper state of nature.So,Locke gives emphasis of the equality of men.All men are created by God as equal and no one is superior to other.This concept of equality later influenced Jefferson when he wrote the Declaration of Independence.

Private property

To Locke man has some basic rights including the right to property.Even in the state of nature men had the right to property and the justification of property is labor.So,whatever a man transforms from its original condition by his own labour becomes his.By property he also means the life ,liberty and happiness.

Social contract and the consent of the majority

The contract by which men avoided the state of nature and entered into the civil government is the social contract.Men entered into the civil government mainly to preserve his property,that means his life,liberty and happiness.Men also entered into the civil to have an independent and neutral judge. The civil government will also be based on the consent of the majority people. So,the consent of the majority is another democratic element in his theory.According to Locke the absolute government is not the right kind of government as it is not based on the consent of the majority.

Sovereign power

But Locke’s most democratic principles deal with his definition of the sovereign power.The sovereign power is the power of the government.At first,Locke divides the sovereign power into two quarters, namely, legislative and executive .The legislative power should be separated from the executive power is the most revolutionary democratic principle of Locke’s philosophy.The legislative means the parliament which makes the laws.But the legislative body is selected by the general people.To Locke legislative power is held as a trust and is,therefore,only a fiduciary power.So,there remains in the hands of the general people a supreme power to remove or alter the legislative power when they find the legislative act contrary to the trust reposed in them.

This leads to the second great democratic principle namely the right to rebellion.According to Locke the transfer of the right to rule from the people to the sovereign is revocable and the people retain the right to make rebellion.Locke says that if the legislative or the executive body engages in the wicked acts the people will take decision to punish accordingly.Locke places sovereignty into the hands of the people.

To sum up, Locke's model consists of a civil state, built upon the natural rights common to a people who need and welcome an executive power to protect their property and liberties; the government exists for the people's benefit and can be replaced or overthrown if it ceases to function toward that primary end.

Locke for the first time introduced the representative government. His ideas heavily influenced, however, both the American and French Revolutions. His notions of people's rights and the role of civil government provided strong support for the intellectual movements of both revolutions.For this reason he is called the father of modern democracy.

Machiavelli's Conception of Rulership or Qualities of a Good Ruler or Prince

In his masterpiece The Prince Machiavelli speaks of some wise,practical and also controversial qualities of a good ruler.The qualities he urges a ruler to practise are quite new ,but very effective.At first,it seems that Machiavelli is not much concerned with morality or religious values and his theory has no particular ends. In fact,Machiavelli is not motivated by any religious consideration and thus does not give emphasis on moral ends.But Machiavelli speaks of three ends,which every ruler should aim at.They are to gain power,to retain power and to extend power.

Here follows the qualities that ,according to Machiavelli,should belong to a good ruler.

Three ends

According to Machiavelli a ruler should have three ends namely to gain power,to retain power and to extend power.In order to achieve these ends,a ruler can do everything.Machiavelli wisely borrows an image from medieval animal fables and says that the ruler must be able to imitate both the lion and the fox. The bravery and strength of the lion will not be enough to enable the ruler to escape the traps set by his enemies; for that, the slyness of the fox is also needed.

Art of deception

In his advices to the rulers Machiavelli was certainly influenced by the political condition of his age.During his time Italy was a safe heaven for the corrupt politicians and the good politicians could not compete with them.So,Machiavelli urged the rulers to develop the art of deception,if they would like to succed in the game of politics.He considered the deception as an art.According to Machiavelli only the shrewdest and most crafty individuals can survive in the vulnerable art of governing.A cunning ruler can only fight back the dangers created by his opponents.

A ruler should not be religious

According to Machiavelli a ruler should not be religious. Machiavelli separates religion from politics.He does not say that a ruler should be moral,religious or kind to his subjects.On the other hand he opines that a ruler should only concentrate on his own welfare and try to achieve his ends.

A ruler must not be moral.The enemies can hatch many plots for a ruler,who is guided by moral considerations.It seems that Machiavelli is not concerned with morality in the matter of politics.

Criticism of Christianity

He sharply criticizes the christian morality and says that it makes men become feeble and weak and causes them to be the easy preys to the evil minded men.He envisions a double standard of behavior,one for the rulers and the other for the subjects.To Machiavelli it will be disastrous for a ruler if he follows Christian morality.But Machiavelli considers religion as a very important element for uniting people in peace and order.This a very cynical and pragmatic view of religion,as he is only concerned with the social usefulness of religion ,not with its moral truth.

A ruler should look virtuous

To Machiavelli, though a ruler should not be virtuous but it is necessary that he should seem to be virtuous. To the previous political writers,a prince was expected to be the embodiment of supreme human virtues.A prince is supposed to be just,magnanimous and truthful to his words and obligations.But Machiavelli objected to such demands.Sometimes cruelty,sometimes leniency,sometimes loyalty must be the right course for a ruler. A ruler should not be bound by any moral rules.As people always shift their moods,a ruler also must be swift and shrewd to adapt himself to the changed situation. A ruler,therefore, can be also faithless.But Machiavelli emphasizes on the fact that a ruler must be able to disguise his character well and be a great feigner and dissembler.

Caesar Borgia vs Savonarola

Machiavelli draws examples from the actual political rulers of Italy.He particularly talks about two political leaders namely Caesar Borgia and Savonarola. Caesar Borgia was a clever, cruel,selfish and unscrupulous ruler.But he was a successful ruler,who was able to keep control over his subjects. Savonarola,on the other hand,was a religious person and so called good ruler.The result was that he was executed.So,to Machiavelli Caesar Borgia is the ideal ruler.

It is ,therefore,according to Machiavelli the ends are important,not the means.The ruler should choose only those means which would fulfill his political ends.Moreover,Machiavelli’s political theory is scientific and is based on his own experience of affairs.