Whitman's Mysticism and the Concept of Body and Soul in 'Song of Myself': Which is more important to Whitman-the soul or the body?

 

 As a devotee of Transcendentalism, Whitman also believes in mysticism. As we go through his 'Song of Myself', we find that he gives lot of emphasis on mystical experiences. Mysticism is not really a coherent philosophy of life, but more a temper of mind. A mystic’s vision is intuitive. It feels the presence of a divine reality behind and within the ordinary world of sense perception. He feels that God and the supreme soul animating all things are identical. He sees an essential identity of Being between Man, Nature and God. Song of Myself has several mystical undercurrents in this sense.


Whitman’s mystical experience of his self comes through various stages. The first stage may be termed the “Awakening of self,” the second the “Purification of self.” Purification involves an acceptance of the body and all its functions. This acceptance reflects the poet’s goal to achieve mystical experience through physical reality. This is an apposition to the Puritanical view of purification through mortification of the flesh. Whitman philosophises that the self can be purified not through purgation but through the acceptance of the physical. The mystical experience paves the way for the merging of physical reality with a universal reality.


For this very reason, we cannot call Whitman a pure mystic in the sense of oriental mysticism. He is not a praying man. Like all mystics he believes in the existence of the soul, in the existence of divine spirit, in the immortality of the human soul and in the capacity of a human being to establish communication between spirit and Divine spirit. But he differs from the traditional mystic. He declares that he sings of the body as much as of the soul. He feels that spiritual communication is possible without sacrificing the flesh.


When we call Whitman a mystic, then obviously the question arises on which he gives more emphasis, body or soul?  As we have already discussed he is different from the oriental mystics. Like oriental mystics he does not give over emphasis on soul. Rather to him both the soul and body are equally important.  Whitman himself makes it clear that  “the soul is not more than the body,” just as “the body is not more than the soul.” God is not even more important than one’s self. The poet asks man not to be “curious about God,” because God is everywhere and in everything. He says;

“ In the faces of men and women I see God, God in my own face in the glass.”

Whitman does not reject the material world or body. He seeks the spiritual through the material. He does not subscribe, to the belief that objects are illusive. There is no tendency on the part of the soul to leave this world for good. We see the soul is trying to play a significant role in the administration of this world of scenes, sights, sounds etc. He does not deny the achievements of science and materialism. In section 23 of “Songs of Myself” he says

Human for positive science!
Long live exact demonstration!



Section 6 presents and introduces the central symbol of “Songs of Myself”. We see that a child appears with leaves full in both hands and asks the poet “What is the grass?” Hesitating first, the poet muses that “the grass is itself a child,” or may be “it is the handkerchief of he Lord.” Here the grass is a symbol of the divinity latent in the ordinary, common life of man. It is also a symbol of continuity inherent in the life-death cycle. Like a true mystic, Whitman believes that no one really dies. It might be to him that death means rebirth; it is the way by which man can establish a certain relation being one with God. Whitman says that even “The smallest sprout shows there is really no death……….

All goes onward and outward, nothing collapses,
And to die is different from what any one supposed, and luckier.”

As a mystic, Whitman believed that there was no difference between the creator and the creation. His “self” is a universal self. He sees people of both sexes, all ages, many different walks of life; even animals are included. The poet along with the divine spirit not only loves them all; he is also a part of them. Whitman says;

And these tend inward to me,and I tend outward to them
And such as it is to be of these more or less I am,
And of these one and all I weave the song of Myself.

Grass, a central symbol in “Song of Myself” suggests the divinity of common things. The nature and significance of grass unfold the themes of death and immortality. Grass is the key to the secrets of man’s relationship with the Divine. It indicates the God is everything and everything is God.

Whitman approaches democracy from a new angle. His democratic faith is related to his concept of mystical self. He believes that democracy must yield spiritual results. He takes recourse to metaphysical doctrine to discuss the material world. To him soul is limitless and this limitless itself speaks for equality. And the equality is potential. Not only that his poetry shown his faith in the unity of whole on oneness of all. “Songs of Myself” saying about this oneness

“ And that all men ever born are also my brothers,
        the women my sisters and lovers,
And that a kelson of the  eration is love.”

Whitman seldom lost touch with the physical reality even in the midst of mystical experience. Physical phenomena for him were symbols of spiritual reality. He believed that “the unseen is proved by seen. Thus he makes use of highly sensuous and concrete imagery to convey his perception of divine reality. He finds a purpose behind natural objects-grass, sea, birds, flowers, animals.

The smallest sprout shows there is really no death. Indeed, one might say that mysticism constitutes the very poetic form of Whitman’s poems. He looked upon the universe as constituting a unity of disparate objects, unified the Divine Spirit. Thus his poems are “Leave of Grass” signifying at once separateness and unity. His dominant metaphor of grass presents a case for unity and harmony, a basic component of structure.

Thus, Whitman is a mystic as much as he is a poet of democracy and science, but a mystic without a creed. He sees the body as the manifestation of the spirit which is delivered by death into a higher life. What we may call Whitman’s mysticism is democratic mysticism which available to every man with equal terms and embracing contradictory elements. But it is undeniable that mysticism is central to the meaning of “Song of Myself.
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Whitman’s Concept of Democracy, Reconcilment of Major Conflicts in the American Body Politic and the Idea of American Self in his 'Song of Myself '

I am the poet of the Body and
I am poet of the soul
I am the poet of the woman the same as the man
In the faces of men and women I see God, and in my own face in the glass.

                                                            'Song of Myself', Whitman 

This is Whitman's bold expression of the idea of democracy in his "Song of Myself."  Whitman was the ultimate follower of the Transcendentalist movement ,which believed in individual freedom and democracy.Throughout the peom Song of Myself  Whitman gives the  emphasis on equality of all men and women.To him all humans are equal and all professions are equally honorable.  In this all encompassing interpretation Whitman says that the freedom offered by democracy is for all not a chosen few. It included all people, not renouncing those of other races, creeds, or social standings.

Among poets, Walt Whitman is undoubtedly the greatest champion of democracy. True, the English romantic poets were staunch supporters of democracy. But Whitman’s approach to democracy was much more vivid and realistic. He was a systematic and painstaking student of political reality. His ideal of democracy was no visionary’s dream. He denounced all prerogatives and vested interest. Whitman visualized complete harmony between the individual and society.

Nature of democracy 

Whitman united democratic themes and subject matter with free verse form in Song of Myself.  In this poem, Whitman celebrates unity of all life and people.  He embraces diversity of geography, culture, work, sexuality, and beliefs.  Whitman’s impact solidifies American dreams of independence, freedom, and fulfillment, and transforms them for larger spiritual meaning.  Whitman values hard work and being humble and non-egotistical.  His ideals are things such as good health, soul, and the love of nature.
 

The opening of the poem 

Whitman's belief in equality is so strong, he dedicates the first lines of "Song of Myself" to it:

 I celebrate myself, and sing myself,
And what I assume you shall assume,
For every atom belonging to me as good belongs to you.
 

Here, "I" and "you" are used symbolically, not unlike the "myself" from the title that repeats itself in the first line.Whitman uses "I" to refer not only to himself, but to a larger "I" that includes the reader and humanity in general. Invoking the universal "I" brings a sense of equality to the poem without directly addressing that theme. In its own mysterious way, though, the poem does deal directly with equality and democracy, primarily through Whitman's imagery and language. Whitman celebrates unity of all life and people. His belief in equality for all people is also depicted in these lines.  

In democracy Whitman saw possibilities of universal peace and brotherhood. ”Spiritual democrat” is the right epithet or special epithet for Whitman. To Whitman the common man, the divine average was the most authentic specimen of humanity. And as a poet he is not interested in any speciality that he can’t share with “all”. While Whitman gave a definition of democracy in his prose treatise “Democratic Invaluable commentary on his “Leaves of Grass” .The poem in this  collection themselves illustrate his ideal of democracy both in context and form.
 

The grass is the great symbol of democracy in nature and it is by lying on it and observing it that the poet begins to reflect. The poet says in section- 1:
 

“I loafe and invite my soul
I lean and loafe at my case observing a spear of summer grass.”

The grass symbolizes separateness in unity, a sort of individual identity in unity, which is the basic essential of democracy. The grass becomes a graphic representation of Whitman’s central concept of democracy in the following lines:
 

“Or, I guess it is a uniform hieroglyphic,
And it means, sprouting alike in broad zones and narrow zones
Growing among black flocks as among white
 

The grass is carefree and grows in all places. It has no option to grow only in specific places. It grows among the black as well as the white folks in broad as well as narrow zones. This suggests the democratic spirit which the poet always emphasizes.
 

It is the spear of grass that enables the poet to understand the eternal cycle of life and death:
 

The smallest sprout shows there is really no death,
All goes onward and outward -------and nothing collapses
And to die is different from what anyone supposed.

As a prophet of democracy Whitman manifests in his poetry the basic sides of democracy-liberty of the individual and equality-all based on the basic belief in the of equality human being.

The poet’s belief in human dignity is clear in his poems. He sings of the men, common American engaged in many professions- the blacksmith, the butcher, the farmer, the boatman, the raft man. There is no distinction for the poet.
 

He says he is comrade of all who shakes their hands. He defines himself to be every hue, color, caste etc. This reveals Whitman’s democratic impulse. In section 10 he says:-

Of every hue and caste am I, of every rank and religion
A farmer, mechanic, artist, gentleman, sailor, quaker,
--------- physician, Priest.
 

To the poet the whole cosmos is beautiful. Nothing is trivial to him in the whole universe. Everything can be subject of his poetry. It is noteworthy how he emphasises the word “En-Masse” in Section 23

“Endless unfolding of words of Ages!
And mine a word of the modern, the word En-Masse.”

These lines show the democratic ideas of the poet that run through the vein of his poetry. Many words have been used, coined since time immemorial. But the words “En-Masse” appeals to the poet more than any other word.  “En-Masse” stands for all humanity, for all significant or insignificant things, for entire mankind. To the poet the entire mankind is one. All men and all women are equal. There is no disparity between people belonging to different caste, color or creed. Whitman is the poet of “En-Masse”

In singing himself he sings of all, for he identifies himself totally with the average, American, as well as the whole mankind. He possesses what other men posses. He does not support special favour that he can’t share with “all.”  He declares he will “accept nothing which all cannot have their counterpart of on the same terms Sec 24. He also says,” For every atom belonging to me a good belongs to you.

Feeling of sympathy and comradeship, the inevitable offshoots of the true democratic impulse, pervade Whitman’s poetry. Anyone without sympathy for his fellow human beings, in Whitman’s opinion, walks into his own funeral in his shroud.
 

“ And whoever walks a furlong without sympathy walks to his
own funeral drest in his shroud.”

Whitman is democratic not only in his ideas but also in his poetic technique. In his poetic style democratic impulse is reflected. It is significant that he rejects the conventional forms of poetry which he felt to be aristocratic past. His freedom with poetic form reflects his advocacy of freedom for human soul. The free flow of words, the lines of uneven length, all express the sense of development inherent democracy.

It has been remarked , Whitman is more of a nationalists than a truly democratic poet. Because he confesses he sings of America. But if he sings of America, it is precisely because he associates the nation with democracy. It would be most apt to endorse the opinion of John Burroughs: “ The reader who would get at the spirit and meaning of Leaves of Grass must remember that its animating principle from first to last, is democracy. Frequent emphasise has been put on unity ; equality and human dignity in “Song of Myself” reveals Whitman’s democratic principle or impulse.

He follows Emerson in applauding the doctrine of the “divine average” and of the greatness of the commonplace. In his Preface to Leaves of Grass, Whitman states “The United States themselves are essentially the greatest poem,” I believe he meant that the diversity of geography, culture, beliefs and work all combine to create a wonderful country.  Whitman’s subject matter and style tie together to reflect his values of a working class democracy, humbleness and the enjoyment of life.  Whitman’s impact has solidified American dreams and transcends, transforms them for a larger spiritual meaning.

Thus, we see in his 'Song of Myself', Whitman emerges as the champion of equality and democracy. He has a deep faith in democracy because this political form of government respects the individual. He thought that the genius of the United States is best expressed in the common people, not in its executive branch or legislature, or in its churches or law courts. He believed that it is the common folk who have a deathless attachment to freedom. His attitudes can be traced to the Enlightenment of the eighteenth century because he thought that the source of evil lay in oppressive social institutions rather than in human nature.

Anne Bradstreet's Criticism of the Male World in her “The Prologue”

In her poem the Prologue, Anne Bradstreet sharply criticizes the male world for its unjust prejudice and hostility against the female world and female creativity. In order to criticize the male world, Anne Bradstreet uses such literary devices as irony and sarcasm. The tone of Anne is ironic throughout the poem. Her approach seems to be very polite but behind this polite attitude there lies a biting as well as pointed attack towards the male world. She uses many understatements which are also the mark of her ironic politeness.

In the opening stanza she uses the understatement ‘mean pen’ to indicate her ability. It’s very ironic that she tells us about her inability, though we know that she was the first American woman poet who wrote some finest lyrics. Throughout the first three stanzas, she uses other ironic remarks. She compares herself with the ‘school boys’ and says that her inability is inborn and irreparable.

My foolish, broken, blemished Muse so sings,
And this to mend, alas, no Art is able,
'Cause Nature made it so irreparable.

Though she degrades her position by comparing herself with the school boy, we know that she read Shakespeare, Sir Walter Raleigh and Cervantes. So, it is another example of her ironic politeness.

In the fourth stanza, she contrasts herself with Demosthenes and says that her inability cannot be cured as it is by nature weak and wounded.

Art can do much, but this maxim’s most sure
A weak and wounded brain admits no cure.

Here she directs her attack to the prejudice of the male world that women are by nature ‘weak’. So, she criticized the male prejudice by this polite remark. But in the fifth stanza her criticism becomes open and direct. Here she uses sarcasm in order to criticize the hostility of the male world. She uses such censuring remarks as ‘carping tongue,’ Obnoxious’ in order to show the hostility of the male world. She opines that the male world tries to degrade her position in several ways. According to her, the male world degrades and devalues the female creativity. She unmasks this discrimination of the male world in a sarcastic way.

She also uses other sarcastic remarks such as she calls the male members of her society as Greek. Her ironic approach reaches to the point of climax in the last stanzas. Here she uses such hyperbolic expressions as precedence, ‘excel’, ‘preeminence’ etc in order to glorify the so-called superiority of the male world. Actually the male members of the society use these words to signify their position. Anne Bradstreet echoes these words but her tone is very ironic.

In the last stanza she again uses some sarcastic remarks such as ‘Flown quills, “ your prey still catch your praise,” ‘lowly lines’ and ‘glistering gold’ etc in order to show the self glorifying and self satisfying mentality of the male persons of her society. She also uses such expressions as ‘mean’ and ‘unrefined’ ore in order to show her humbleness. She says that her work is unrefined ore, but we know that as a poetess she is not without skills. So, her ironic degradation actually heightens her position to our eyes.

Thus, we see that Anne Bradstreet uses the ironic and sarcastic remarks throughout the poem in order to criticize the male prejudice and male attitude towards the female world and female creativity.

The Use of Animal Imagery in Ted Hughes’ poem The Jaguar

In a literary work the term ‘imagery’ mainly refers to simile, metaphor, descriptive words etc that evoke the mental pictures, before our minds eyes. It is the picture made out of words and appeals to the senses of taste, smell, hearing and touch, and to internal feelings as well as the sense of sight. The imagery is achieved in any literary work through a collection of images.

The Jaguar, composed by the zoo laureate Ted Hughes, is a poem on the background of a zoo and the poem is well-know for the imagery that the poet uses to portray the condition of the encaged animals and birds and the blind energy embodied in a jaguar, the jungle king. The poem opens with the description of the apes. Line –I depicts them in a spiritless condition, who are engaged in ‘yawning’ and, adoring’ their fleas. By using such words as ‘yawn’ and ‘ adore’ the poet creates two powerful images which suggest that the apes have nothing urgent to do, and so feel sleepy. They also, instead of being annoyed, seem to enjoy the presence of fleas on their bodies while basking in the warmth of the sun. In the next cage the parrots are shrieking as if they were on fire and strutting like harlots attracting the onlookers for a throw of nuts. So the expressions, on fine, and stoat imply two vivid images, the parrots are suffering from untold suffering in their chained life and they make sensual gestures like the street girls to attract the passers by. And the first stanza ends with the description of tiger and lion which have become fatigued and indolent, having been deprived of their natural habitat. They are idly having a sun bath.

In stanza II we have the picturesque description of the boa-constrictor, so coiled and motionless as if it were doing so for ages and turned into a living Fossil. And the next three lines-

“Cage after cage seems empty, or

Stinks of sleepers from the breathing straw,

If might be painted on a nursery wall”.

It suggests the condition of the other animals. Actually the cages are not empty; they only seem to be so as there is no spontaneity among the encaged animals.

And now in the stanza III the poet introduces us with a cage in front of which the crowd ‘ stands’ and, stares and gets hypnotized at the spectacle of a jaguar. Unlike other animals, the jaguar is restless and a mobile machinery of destructive energy. Through the prison darkness his eyes meet those of the viewers and they are locked in a Fierce-fuse’ that can explode any moment Boredom is unknown to him. He spins from the bass to the cage, the cage then seems too small to contain him. He cannot be contained in any cage. No prison can same such ferocious energy or restrict the jaguar’s inborn spirit of independence. And the poet ends his description with the following two striking lines.

The world rolls under the long thrust of his heel.

Over the cage floor the horizons come.

The zoo is made a world where the jaguar is let loose to reign as the supreme power. The world lies under his feet and the horizon meets the cage bass, thus declaring the boundless power of the jaguar. The poet with the help of such vivid expressions as the drills of his eyes, fierce-fuse, cell wilderness of freedom etc successfully depicts the characteristics of the jaguar, the symbol of energy.

Tommy as an Anti-hero in Saul Bellow’s Seize the Day

While a hero is traditionally a fortunate individual of superhuman power or spirit, an anti-hero is by definition the opposite of a hero and is thus a person who is neither strong nor purposeful. An anti hero may be portrayed as having little control over events, seeming aimless or confused, or as being out of step with society.

Tommy Wilhem, the protagonist of Saul Bellow’s Seize the Day is an anti-hero. He does not have Herculean strength nor has he Achillean prowess, nor does he has the sky kissing magnanimity of a Shakespearean tragic hero. As a result failure shapes his future. He seems to drift through his life, making poor decisions that remove him farther and farther from his family and friends, and he feels like an outsider in the city of his birth.

Tommy stumbles and dwindles at every step. He is a dangling man. In Seize the Day, Tommy, being caught in an existential crisis, is in quest of identity or meaningful existence. He is engaged seriously in a struggle for survival. He fails, he suffers, and he is spurned (rejected). He is turned into a puppet at the hands of scrubby opportunist. His hope is ever crossed and his mind suffers the stings of torments.

Tommy is hardly attractive. He is large-“fair-haired hippopotamus!- in his middle forties. He is even filthy-“What a dirty devil son of mine” thinks his aged father Dr. Adler. His dress-up style of talking and taking food reveals his flaws. He exhibits symptom of neurosis and his actions ad attitudes are symptomatic of his lack of control or loss of order of his being.

Tommy is too much emotional and childish and these very features make him dependent on others. Being unable to solve his problems, he rushes to his father for substantial support and he gets nothing but rebuff. Dr. Adler likes to appear affable. Affable! His own son, his one and only son could not speak his mind or ease his heart to him.” This is also the reason that he gives Mr. Tamkin the power of attorney to deal with his last survival without knowing him perfectly.

The modern dilemma “to be or not to be” is present in Tommy’s character. He seems to be a genius in bringing calamity upon him. He has always chosen the path that his intuition or intellect warned against. Thus invites bad consequences upon himself.

“This was typical of Wilhem. After much thought and hesitation and debate he invariably took the course he had rejected innumerable times. Ten such decisions made up the history of his life. He had decided that it would be a bad mistake to go to Hollywood, and then he went. He had made up his mind not to marry his wife, but ran off and got married. He had resolved not to invest money with Tamkin and then had given him a check.

Tommy’s queer inability to stick to a well thought decision is the prime cause in turning his life miserable, precarious. Tommy is a simpleton and believes everyone. His foolish investment with Dr. Tamkin is reminiscent of the investment of his career some twenty years earlier with a movie talent scout called Maurice Venice.

In Seize the Day the alienated hero is a terribly oppressed individual and it is with the feeling of his oppression that the fiction begins. The non-human, diabolic forces of materialism pose serious menace to overthrow him and subdue or demolish his human traits. Tommy Wilhem journeys through chaotic situations, through a metropolis (city) of peril (danger); he fights a solitary battle against what is annihilating for mankind.

Despite all these, Tommy is a hero, as he possesses something noble and magnanimous. Despite all circumstances of oppression, despite the violence and threat of being overthrown, Wilhem decides to retain humanity. He refuses to become a heartless money-thirst maniac. Tommy is placed in a perplexing situation of making a choice between humanity and heartlessness. Though he sees nothing but a bleak future before him, he decides to retain humanity, admits love and longs to have a place in the human community.


Unlike the mythi hero, there is no joyful homecoming for Tommy, or a satisfied sense completion of a mammoth task. HE neither has the superhuman dimensions of Shakespeare’s unforgettable tragic heroes. So, from all these aspects we can call him an anti-hero.

The Turn of the Screw as a Ghost Story

Henry James's novella The Turn of the Screw shows complex interactions between the living and the dead. The plot revolves around the encounter of the ghosts with the central character of the story, the governess. She apparently sees ghosts when she is alone or preoccupied by fantasies. James wrote The Turn of the Screw at a time when there was a prevalent fondness for ghost stories.

As a story The Turn of the Screw is highly suspenseful and tragic. The thing that introduces tension, builds the suspense, climax and the catastrophe of the story is ghost.

The beginning of the story is set up very neatly for us. In the story Miss Giddens, a governess agrees to take a position at the estates of Bly. The position requires taking care of two young children, the advertisement having been posted by the uncle, who asks not to be disturbed, even under the most serious of circumstances. She takes the coach to the estate and is welcomed there by the children and their housekeeper. All seems idyllic to start with.

Henry James heightens the element of suspense in the novel, through the vision of the mysterious man. At the evening she often strolls through the grounds and mediates on the beauty of her surroundings. Sometimes she wishes her employer could know how much she enjoys the place and how well she is executing her duties. One evening using her stroll, she does perceive the figure of a strange man on top of the old towers of the house. He appears rather distinct, but she is aware that he keeps his eyes on her. She feels rather disturbed without knowing why.

The suspense builds up with the reappearance of the strange man. Who is the mysterious man and what does he want? Where did he come from and how did he disappear? One Sunday as the group is preparing to go to church, the governess returns to the dining room to retrieve her gloves from the table. Inside the room she notices the strange weird face of a man staring in at her in a hard and deep manner, suddenly, she realizes that the man has “come for someone else.” Through her description Mrs Grose, the house keeper identifies him as Peter Quint, the ex-valet who has been dead for about a year.

Always after a happy session with the children, she experiences shock. Once again after days of fun and fulfillment with the children, she spots the face in the window of the dining room. One day, while playing with Flora near the lake, she probably observes a figure on the other side of the lake. She surmises that Flora has seen the vision, but is pretending to be ignorant about it. Without being sure, she casts aspersions in the innocent child.

James arranges the sequence of events in such a way that scene of excitement appear after the scenes of quietness. One night she hears some movement outside her door and becomes alert. She opens the door and walks towards the staircase. She notices the figure of Peter Quint in the landing. From such a short distance he looks frightening. When she returns to her room, she is shocked to find Flora missing from her bed; Flora appears from behind one of the curtains. One night she finds Flora looking through the window and Miles standing outside. Their behavior completely puzzles her.

At the stage the governess feels the heed to escape from the whole situation and run away from Bly. But she fears that the spirit might take complete possession of the children if she leaves. She decides to stay back Bly. With this intention, she returns back to the house to pack her things, she is shocked to see Miss Jessel sitting on a desk and looking at her with melancholic eyes. The appearance of a male and then a female ghost complicates the plot.

Now suspicion of the governess about the involvement of the children with the ghost takes its climax. She starts looking at the children with a biased eye and exhibits negative attitudes towards them. She imagines that the children are fooling her. One day, the governess and Mrs Gross walk around the lake and finds that Flora is not around. Miles feigns innocence over Flora's whereabouts, so the governess seeks the aid of Mrs. Grose. Before the two women leave to search, the governess places the letter to her employer on the table for one of the servants to mail. The governess and Mrs. Grose go to the lake, where they find the boat missing. After walking around the lake, the governess finds Flora and, asks her bluntly where Miss Jessel is. The governess points to the image of Miss Jessel as proof that the specter exists, but Mrs. Grose and Flora claim to see nothing. The ghost appears to the governess; however, Mrs. Grose sees nothing and sides with Flora, who also says that she sees nothing and never has.

The next morning, the governess finds out from Mrs. Grose that Flora was struck with a fever during the night and that she is terrified of seeing the governess. However, Mrs. Grose does say that the governess was justified in her suspicions of Flora, because the child has started to use evil language. The governess encourages Mrs. Grose to take Flora to her uncle's house for safety and also so that she can try to gain Miles's allegiance in his sister's absence.

In the falling action of the story, the governess and Miles stay in the house alone. They sit to have a meal which is dominated by silence, the maid cleaning the dishes being the only sound heard. When the governess and Miles discuss the matter of whether he took a letter she had written the day before from the hall table it was Quint who appeared in "his white face of damnation", looking intently at her like "a sentential before a prison". Her main concern at this moment is to protect the boy; it was like "fighting with a demon for a human soul". The apparition still has his eyes fixed on the governess and the boy, lurking like "a baffled beast." But the governess gathers her strength and is determined to face it. He suddenly disappears. She then asks Miles about what he did to result in his being expelled from school, and they have a very long conversation. Eventually she is able to get the truth out of him. He also admits to stealing a letter that the governess had finally decided to send to his uncle. During their talk, Quint's ghost appears to the governess. Miles ask if it is Miss Jessel, but she forces him to admit that it is Peter Quint. He turns suddenly around to look and falls in her arms. The governess clutches him, but instead of a triumph she discovers that she is holding Miles’ dead body.

During her first day at Bly, the governess thinks she hears a child's cry in the distance. The governess imagines herself at the helm of a ship lost at sea. Ghosts of Quint, Miss Jessel are not anymore demonic creatures. Ghosts may just be dreams, the dream of a mind that needed to protect the children, an illusion created by fears and frustrated hopes in a way that makes impossible to separate dreams from hard facts. But ghosts are the central idea of the novel or that idea around which the novel functions. So, from this point of view we can say that it is a ghost story.

Role of the Governess for the Tragedy in the life of Flora and Miles in 'The Turn of the Screw'

The governess, who was entrusted as the protector of the children, ultimately turns out to be the destroyer of them in Henry James’s The Turn of the Screw. So, she is responsible for the tragedy that takes place in the life of the children.

As we go through The Turn of the Screw, we find the character governess as a complex character and a combination of good and evil qualities of love, devotion and sincerity and at the same time she is also corrupted by the devilish traits of suspicion, prejudice and self interest. The beginning of novel projects her positive qualities, while the later part of the book exposes her negative traits.

The governess is a woman of twenty who is highly romantic, adventurous, imaginative and idealistic. Her romantic and adventurous mentality is shown at the beginning of the novel. When she takes the challenge of working in a remote place under strange condition, of course she had fallen for the charms of her employer was tempted to take up the job to please him.

When she reaches Bly, the big house evokes a mystic aura for the governess. As she explores the house with Flora, she passes through “empty chambers and dull corridors”. To the imaginative mind of governess, the house creates “the view of a castle of romance inhabited by a rosy sprite”.The beginning of the story is set up very neatly for us. In the story Miss Giddens, a governess agrees to take a position at the estates of Bly. The position requires taking care of two young children, the advertisement having been posted by the uncle, who asks not to be disturbed, even under the most serious of circumstances. She takes the coach to the estate and is welcomed there by the children and their housekeeper.

At the evening she often strolls through the grounds and mediates on the beauty of her surroundings. Sometimes she wishes her employer could know how much she enjoys the place and how well she is executing her duties. Her desire to meet the employer as well as a stranger is soon fulfilled. One evening using her stroll, she does perceive the figure of a strange man on top of the old towers of the house. He appears rather distinct, but she is aware that he keeps his eyes on her. She feels rather disturbed without knowing why. It seems obvious that the governess is infatuated by her employer and her infatuation is psychotic enough to allow her to create ghost. She takes it seriously and spends much time thinking about the encounter. She wonders if there was a secret at Bly.

In her imagination she has created the picture of a handsome person. One Sunday as the group is preparing to go to church, the governess returns to the dining room to retrieve her gloves from the table. Inside the room she notices the strange weird face of a man staring in at her in a hard and deep manner, suddenly, she realizes that the man has “come for someone else.” She tells the housekeeper that the apparition was looking for little Miles. She cannot explain how she knows this, but she is sure of it. Through her description Mrs Grose, the house keeper identifies him as Peter Quint, the ex-valet who has been dead for about a year.

Just when she seems happy in the company of the children, she is troubled by the visit of this strange man. Always after a happy session with the children, she experiences shock. Thus, the governess who was feeling secured at first, starts feeling insecure. She feels distressed but draws inspiration from the smiling faces to carry on business. Once again after days of fun and fulfillment with the children, she spots the face in the window of the dining room. One day, while playing with Flora near the lake, she probably observes a figure on the other side of the lake.

She exaggerates the issue. She is highly opinionated. She surmises that Flora has seen the vision, but is pretending to be ignorant about it. Without being sure, she casts aspersions in the innocent child. She is impulsive when she hears that Miles had been close to Quint and had knowledge of his affair with Jessel, the governess jumps to the conclusion that Miles has acquired evil characteristics. She starts justifying his dismissal from school.

She starts looking at the children with a biased eye and exhibits negative attitudes towards them. One night she hears some movement outside her door and becomes alert. She opens the door and walks towards the staircase. She notices the figure of Peter Quint in the landing. From such a short distance he looks frightening. When she returns to her room, she is shocked to find Flora missing from her bed; Flora appears from behind one of the curtains. One night she finds Flora looking through the window and Miles standing outside. The governess develops a negative attitude towards the children. Thus she views their every word and every action with suspicion.

The governess feels the heed to escape from the whole situation and run away from Bly. But she fears that the spirit might take complete possession of the children if she leaves. She decides to stay back Bly. With this intention, she returns back to the house to pack her things, she is shocked to see Miss Jessel sitting on a desk and looking at her with melancholic eyes.

More than the children, it is the governess who seems to be possessed by the spirits. She forgets that Miles and Flora are children who need freedom to enjoy themselves and move around.

The governnes and Mrs Gross walk around the lake and finds that Flora is not around. Miles feigns innocence over Flora's whereabouts, so the governess seeks the aid of Mrs. Grose. The governess and Mrs. Grose go to the lake, where they find the boat missing. After walking around the lake, the governess finds Flora and, asks her bluntly where Miss Jessel is. The governess points to the image of Miss Jessel as proof that the specter exists, but Mrs. Grose and Flora claim to see nothing. The ghost appears to the governess. She takes if for granted that evil spirit posses the children and their activities revolve around the ghost. Thus, when she finds Flora missing she comes to the conclusion that the girl has gone to meet Jessel and also that Miles sends his sister away so that he can meet Peter Quint.

The next morning, the governess finds out from Mrs. Grose that Flora was struck with a fever during the night. The governess encourages Mrs. Grose to take Flora to her uncle's house for safety. The governess and Miles discuss the matter of whether he took a letter she had written the day before from the hall table it was Quint who appeared in "his white face of damnation", looking intently at her like "a sentential before a prison". Her main concern at this moment is to protect the boy; it was like "fighting with a demon for a human soul".The apparition still has his eyes fixed on the governess and the boy, lurking like "a baffled beast." But the governess gathers her strength and is determined to face it. He suddenly disappears. She then asks Miles about what he did to result in his being expelled from school, and they have a very long conversation. Eventually she is able to get the truth out of him. He also admits to stealing a letter that the governess had finally decided to send to his uncle. During their talk, Quint's ghost appears to the governess. Miles ask if it is Miss Jessel, but she forces him to admit that it is Peter Quint. He turns suddenly around to look and falls in her arms. The governess clutches him, but instead of a triumph she discovers that she is holding Miles’ dead body.

It seems more reasonable to assume that the ghost has visible only to the governess and through her psychotic imagination; she simple frightened the young boy to death. She vows to protect innocent children and to play the part of god mother. But it is ironic that the more the governess thinks of guarding the children against evil, the more they are exposed to it. She fails in her mission and is partly responsible for the child’s plight.

Theme of Alienation in Saul Bellow’a Seize the Day

Alienation or sense of separation is one of the dominating themes in Bellow’s novel Seize the Day. Saul Bellow is primarily concerned with the well-worn modern dilemma of the individual: desperately isolated and profoundly alone in a society whose only God is money. As the story opens, Bellow’s hero, Tommy feels out of place in this hard world of money, selfishness and exploitation. It is a world which has a non- human and animal like frame work, where feelings ad emotions have no significance.

As the story opens, Tommy is in a state of extreme ignominy, forty four years old, overemotional and heavily dependent. He is caught and crushed in a world devoid of heart in which feelings and emotions have no significance. He is disillusioned in a world where there is no caring and no real communication among the men. In the lower middle class, densely populated section of New York cit, Tommy lives I hotel, Gloriana. His father lives also in the same hotel apart from his son. People talk to each other, do business, pass the time or day, but somehow do so only superficially.

The theme of ignominious isolation is established in the firs several pages of the novel when Tommy stops to get his morning newspaper from the Rubin. Both of them pretend that they are intimate in their talking, but neither of them talks about important issues. Their issues involve only trivial matters such as the weather, Tommy’s clothes, gin game etc. Though both men knew many intimate details of each others personal lives neither of them talks about it. As the author says,
“None of these could be mentioned and the great weight of the unspoken left them little to talk about.”

Tommy also thinks” He (Rubin) meant to be conversationally playful, but his voice had no tone and his eyes, solace and lid-blinded, turned elsewhere. He did not want to here. It was all the same to him.”

Tommy’s biological father Dr Adler even refused to become involved in his son’s desperate loneliness. In Tommy’s case his aged, rich and successful father is physically present but emotionally distant. Tommy is badly in need of money which his father could provide him with. But Dr. Adler is greatly pained when the subject is said. More than money, however, Tommy needs communication with an understanding heart. Again and again he appeals repeatedly to his father for compassion. But he endeavors vainly to penetrate the boundary that surrounds his father. The appeal is always futile. He receives nothing from him but selfish advice as his father says,
“I want nobody on my back, Get off! And I give you the same advice, Wilky. Carry nobody on your back.” His father’s response is ever old, detached, yet bitter and angry, analytical denunciation of Tommy’s past failures ad present ignominy.

“It made Tommy profoundly bitter that his father should speak to him with such detachment about his welfare. Dr Adler liked to appear affable. Affable! “His own son, his one and only son could not speak his mind or ease his heart to him.”

And in a different way, the circumstances are the same with the rather mysterious Dr. Tamkin, a sort of surrogate father to Tommy. According to Tommy “That the doctor cared about him, pleased him. This was what he earned, that someone should care about him; wish him well, kindness, mercy he wanted. “

Tommy feels that he can talk to and be understood by this doctor. But very soon he becomes frustrated. No consolation comes from this master. At the end of the novel he comes to know that he has merely been used. He apprehends that Dr. Tamkin does not truly care about him or his problems. Tommy sounds-

“I was the man beneath: Tamkin was on my back and I thought I was on his. He made me carry him too, besides Margaret, like this they ride on me with hoofs and claws. Tear me two pieces, stamp on me and breach my bones.”

There are other characters namely- Maurice Venice, Mr. Pearls, old Mr. Rappaport from all these characters Tommy finds no consolation. His wife Margaret has left him but will not agree to make a divorce. Isolation is present between them. Margaret torments and exploits him very much. It is her mission only to victimize her husband. Among others Maurice Venice is another agent of disillusionment Mr. Pearls, a German refuge from a concentration camp and Mr. Rappaport, an elderly clutching player of stock markets. The role of each of these figures only reinforces Tommy’s aloofness.

In Seize the Day the sense of despair and isolation of a modern city dweller is conveyed by the image of a howling wolf. Wilhem is a city- bred man, but still he feels out of place in Newyork. When night comes he feels like holing from his window like a wolf. He is painfully aware of his isolation.

One of the major themes of Seize the Day is the isolation of the human spirit in modern society. Tommy is estranged from his wife, separated from his son whom he clearly loves. He has lost the respect of his father. He is completely crushed by the oppressive forces around him. In the novel the appeal is for the caring, for a sincere feeling of involvement with mankind.

Bellow furnishes that a loving recognition of the natural bond between hearts is essential to a society, which seems to have lost or seems to be denying all social kinship. At the end of this novel, Tommy recognizes his kinship when he finds himself at a funeral, while searching for Dr. Tamkin. As he looks down on the corpse of a stranger, he feels the basic relationship between himself and all men. A relationship is established in spite of superficial and man-made barriers by the bond of mortality. At the end, Tommy manages to savage his feeling. He realizes what it is to be a man. He remains emotionally alive and he is redeemed by being completely human. Wilhem’s identification of himself with the dead man asserts that the day has not seized him. He has seized the day. He has rejected the animal world of Tamkin which is unnatural and morally chaotic. He has flaws but he is finally redeemed. He has found the “consummation of his hearts ultimate need.”

The picture upholds the disintegration of family life in (American Society) Western Civilization. It is indeed a social picture of American life. The emotional aridity, lack of fellow- feeling has rendered Western Civilization a true Waste land.

Use of Symbols in Hawthrone’s 'The Scarlet Letter'

The use of symbols is a distinctive feature of American literature. In this regard, Hawthrone’s The Scarlet Letter is a pioneer novel for the use of symbols. In Hawthrone’s use of symbol in The Scarlet Letter we observe the author’s making one of his most distinctive and significant contribution to the growth of American fiction. This novel is usually regarded as the first symbolic novel to e published in the United States.

Moreover the use of symbols makes his narrative more convincing. In this novel the writer depicts the early colonial society dominated by the Puritans. The Puritans had a tendency to see everything allegorically. They looked also ever simple matter from allegorical point of view. Hawthrone vividly portrays this puritan tendency to look for a symbolic meaning in everything.

Prison

Several of Hawthrone’s symbols in “The Scarlet Letter” are obvious. In the first chapter, for example, he descries the prison as “The black flower of civilized society” by using the building of the prison to represent the crime and punishment which were aspects of early Boston’s civilized life.

Wild rose Bush

In the same chapter, he uses the grass plot “much overgrown with burdock, pigweed, apple-peru and such unsightly vegetation” as another symbol of civilization corrupted by the elements which make prisons necessary. He also points out another symbol that is the wild rose bush. He says that “it may serve to symbolize some sweet moral blossom” to relieve the gloom of a tragic story

Beadle

Shortly afterward, in chapter 2, Hawthrone uses the “Beadle” as a symbol of Puritanism.

These symbols are easy to find. Moreover impressive, however are the symbols which Hawthrone sustains throughout the novel, allowing each of them, to develop and take on various appearances and meanings as the book progresses. Among such symbols is the letter “A” itself. In its initial form it is a red cloth letter which is a literal symbol of the sin of adultery. Hester is doomed to wear it throughout her life. But Hawthrone makes the “A” much more richly symbolic before the novel ends.

The letter A appears in a variety of forms and places. It is the elaborately gold embroidered A on Hester’s heart, at which Pearl throws the wild flowers. On the night of his vigil on the scaffold Dimmesdale sees an immense red A in the sky. While Hester is conferring with Chillingworth near the a shore, Pearl arranges eel-grass to form a green “A’ on her own breast. One of the most dramatic of the several A’s in the book is the A so frequently hinted at earlier and which is finally revealed to be an A on Dimmesdale’s chest by “most of the spectators” who witnesses his confession ad death. At the very end of the novel, as a kid of summary symbol there is the reference to the scarlet A against the black background on Hester and Dimmesdale’s tombstone.

Different Meanings of A

Not only the A appears in various forms, but is also acquires a variety of meanings. Even as the original mark of adultery, the scarlet letter has different personal meanings to the various characters. To the Puritan community, it is a mark of just punishment. To Hester, the A is a symbol of unjust humiliation. To Dimmesdale the A is a piercing reminder of his own guilt. To Chillingworth, the A is a spur to the quest for revenge. To Pearl, the A is a bright and mysterious curiosity. In addition, the A also symbolizes things other than adultery. For example, it symbolizes “Angel” when it appears in the sky on the night of Governor Winthrop’s death, and it symbolizes “Able” when years after her humiliation on the scaffold, Hester has won some respect from the Puritans.

Scaffold

Many of the other sustained or important symbol in the novel lie either in the setting or in the characters. The scaffold, for instance, is not only a symbol of the stern Puritan code, but it also becomes a symbol for the open acknowledgement of personal sin.

Night Day

Night is used as a symbol for concealment, and day is a symbol for exposure Dimmesdale’s mounting the scaffold and standing with Hester ad Pearl at night will not suffice. He knows that his symbolic acceptance of his guilt must take place in the day light.

The sun

The sun is also used as a symbol of untroubled guilt free happiness or perhaps the approval of god and nature. The sun shines on Pearl, even in the forest; she seems to absorb and retain the sunshine. But the sun flees from Hester and from the mark of sin on her breast.

The Forest

The forest itself is symbolic on a variety of ways. It is a symbol of the world of darkness and evil. In addition, it also symbolizes a place where Pearl can run and play freely, a friend of the animals and the wild flowers, and where even Hester can throw away her scarlet “A” let down her hair, and feel like a woman again. It is also symbolic of a natural world governed by natural laws-as opposed to the artificial, strict community with its man made Puritan laws.

The Brook

The brook in the forest is also symbolic in several ways. First, it is suggestive of Pearl- because of its unknown source and because it travels through gloom. Because of its mournful babble, it becomes a kind of history of sorrow, to which one more story is added. And when Pearl refuses to cross the brook to join Hester and Dimmesdale, the brook becomes to Dimmesdale “a boundary between two worlds”. The natural setting, then, provides many of the most striking symbols in the novel.

Characters

But perhaps the most revealing display of Hawthrone’s symbolism lies in his use of characters. His minor characters are almost wholly symbolic. The Puritan notions of Church, Sate, and witchcraft are personified in the figures of the Reverend Mr. Wilson, Governor Bellingham, and Mistress Hibbins. It is interesting to note that Hawthorne mentions all three of them in connection with each of the scaffold scenes. The groups of unnamed somber and self righteous Puritans in the marketplace (chap 21-23) are clearly representative of Puritanism generally, even down to the detail of the gentle young wife who saves Hawtrone’s condemnation of the Puritans from being a complete one.

Four major characters

It is however, in the four major characters that Hawthrone’s powers as a symbolist are brought into fullest play. Each of his major characters symbolizes a certain view of sin and its effects to the human heart. And one of them, Pearl is almost a self contained symbol perhaps the most striking symbol that Hawthrone ever created.

Pearl

Pearl is almost as important as the scarlet letter, because she is herself the scarlet letter in another form. Pearl is “the scarlet letter endowed with life” when Arthur Dimmesdale, Hester Prynne ad Pearl stand together on the scaffold one night. The author refers to Pearl as a symbol, as the connecting link between the other two. Pearl is not only an innocent child of nature, she is at the same time an agent if retribution.

Symbol enlarges and deepens a writers meaning. Hawthrone’s principal device for developing meaning is the symbol.

Role of Max in Richard Wright's Native Son

In Richard Wright’s Native Son, Boris Max, the communist attorney, is the mouthpiece of the writer. Wright the first protest novelist, in America, raised his voice against the racial injustice that turned the black people into half human during the 1930s. He expresses all the themes of the novel through Max. Through Max, he describes the overall system of race and class oppression in the United States.

Max, on behalf of the novelist, describes all the institutions of power in the country, the press, the courts, the legal system, the psychiatric profession, the housing market, the entertainment, industry and other institutions as oppressive to the Blacks. But through Max, Wright expresses other two important issues. It’s through Max, we can understand the psyche of Bigger better. And other factor is that Richard Wright wanted reconciliation between the lack and the white. So, Max appeals for reconciliation between the black and he white.

Like Bigger, Max feels a deep sense of exclusion from American society. As a Jew and a Communist, he suffers in myriad ways because American society is dictated by the prejudices of the majority. Perhaps because of his own experiences living on the fringes of society, Max is willing and able to understand Bigger’s life story. He sympathizes with the idea that factors outside of Bigger’s control created the conditions that caused Mary’s death. He makes a compelling argument for the judge that life inside prison would allow Bigger to live as a man among equals for the first time in his life. Disappointed at his failure to convince the judge, Max takes on the burden to convince the governor to grant a stay of execution. He fails at that, too. However, in the final scene, despite Max’s sense of failure, he does connect with Bigger. He is ultimately the one who helps Bigger see his worth as a human being, no matter what he’s done or not done in the short time of his life.

Max tries to show the real cause of Bigger’s murder."Max uses blindness in his passionate argument to the judge, and this same blindness is a continuing theme throughout the book. Max eloquently tells the judge that if he reacts only to Max's comments about the sufferings of Negroes, he will be "blinded" by feelings that prevent him from understanding reality and acting accordingly. Max pleads, "Rather, I plead with you to see... an existence of men growing out of the soil prepared by the collective but blind will of a hundred million people" (Wright 328), and continues, "Your Honor, in our blindness we have so contrived and ordered the lives of men" (Wright 336). Thus, Max sees blindness in this instance is a threat to the state, along with a threat to men's freedom."


Max is more vocal when Mr. Dalton is placed on the stand and he exposes the exorbitant rents and segregating practices and policies of the Dalton's South Side Realty Company. Dalton admits that he simply assumed that blacks were happier living in their own neighborhoods and after he prides himself on helping his employees get an education, he admits that he has never offered employment to any educated blacks.
Through Max we get psychology of Bigger.

When Max returns to see Bigger, Bigger tries to convince the lawyer that the case was already lost and that there is nothing that can be done. Max remains optimistic and he hopes that Bigger will have some faith in him. Bigger sees that he is living in a No Man's Land and even as he answers the sum of Max's questions, he feels Max's condescension and feels distance. Max focuses on Mary's rape and is puzzled when Bigger explains that he did not rape Mary, he did kill her by accident and he hated her even though she didn't do anything to him. As for Bessie, Bigger explains that he neither loved nor hated her; his hate is reserved for whites mostly, because they "own every thing" and prevent him from being able to live freely. He is told to "stay in a spot" and Bigger confesses that he was simply unable to live that sort of life adding that after committing the murders, he felt a sort of freedom that he had not experienced.

In his conversation, Bigger also explains that he is not religious and he would never let himself become so "poor" that he had to rely upon happiness in another world to guide him through the present world. Bigger insists that he will never believe in God and then changes to topic to Mary Dalton, explaining that he had to kill her because "she was killing [him]." Bigger rambles on to explain how the Communists and race leaders have done little for him, that even though he is too young to vote, he has already illegally signed up to vote for those who paid him to do so. Max seeks to convince Bigger that he is different and Bigger is admittedly moved that Jan does not hate him. Max explains that the trial verdict will be delivered by a judge and not by a jury and that Bigger will plead Guilty, rather than Not Guilty, hoping for life imprisonment rather than the death penalty.

Max defends Bigger (the black) in the court

After Buckley has roused the passions of the racist mob, Max decries the very racism and misplaced passion that fuel Buckley's unjust cries for "justice." Max argues that racism, fear and the feudal relationship of Bigger to his landlord Daltons have all mitigated Bigger's motive. Max hopes that the judge might look beyond race prejudice and take a step in the direction of a greater understanding of race in America. After making his case, Max tells Bigger that he did the best he could.
Buckley swiftly derides Max's rhetoric as Communist propaganda and proclaims that Bigger's death is the necessary thing for justice and humanity in America. If Bigger is not killed, the law will have been mutilated and justice will have returned to the people void. Buckley maintains that the law is "holy" and that the court must "let law take its course."

But finally Max stays with Bigger to the last.The judge quickly sentences Bigger Thomas to death. At last, the mob becomes jubilant and they are sated because the judge has accommodated justice by speeding the process of execution, as Bigger's appeal seems unlikely. Max is more perturbed than Bigger, who is to be executed "on or before midnight Friday, March third." Bigger has tried to remain dispassionate but his spirit falters as his mind tries to sort out the reeling, whirlwind activity of the last few days. To recapitulate: On a Saturday, Bigger learned that he would have a job as a chauffeur for a millionaire family; he takes the job after rejecting the temptation to rob Blum's deli. Early Sunday morning, Bigger returns Mary Dalton to her home, accidentally suffocating her. Later Sunday, Bigger visits Bessie, forges a ransom note, discovers the "discovery" of Mary's earrings in the ash, returns to Bessie and rapes and kills her. Monday, Bigger is on the run and he is caught that very night. His inquest is on a Tuesday, his trial is on a Wednesday, and his execution is to be "on or before midnight," Friday.

Max is perturbed because he has little time to regroup and he is unable to convince the Governor to offer Bigger a commutation of sentence or stay of execution. After this final hope has expired, Bigger knows that his life is drawing to a close and he emancipates himself from his emotional stress. He is a broken spirit, no doubt, but Bigger is increasingly introspective and even if his reflections are to be faulted, he struggles to grow as much as he can before he dies. Max stays with Bigger for most of his final hours and the grim reality of Bigger's fate is revealed not in his imminent death but in the details of his conversation with Max. When Bigger sees that Max is disappointed and guilty, he consoles the lawyer by confessing "I'm glad I got to know you," which surprises Max considering the prejudices against Communist, Bigger's distrust of Jews and his fear of white people. Max tries to build solidarity with Bigger through politics, explaining the similarities between Bigger's suffering as a black man and his own sufferings at the hands of anti-Semites.

Bigger is not interested in political solidarity and as he tries to explain what he is feeling he recalls his earlier conversations with Max. Max does not understand what Bigger is trying to say and Bigger becomes frustrated and gives up his last hope of communicating. Uncharacteristically, Bigger is nagged by the thought and again, he tries to explain his "idea" to Max; he needs to "make him know" what he has been trying to express for his whole life. He recounts an earlier conversation when Max asked Bigger the political questions regarding his hate and fear of whites, his economic situation, etc. Bigger focuses on the question of "What would you have liked to do, if you were allowed to?" explaining to Max that nobody had ever asked him what he wanted to do, and so he had never spent serious time contemplating a future. Even though he felt disconnected from humanity, Bigger felt like a human and Max's questions helped Bigger realize how badly he wanted to live.

In Book Three, Wright varies his narrative structure. After two sections of Bigger's thoughts and actions being played off of each other, Book Three dedicates a large portion of the section towards the courtroom scenes that depict Boris A. Max and David Buckley far more than Bigger. In contrast to Buckley's colorful prose and mob-inciting rhetoric, Max is a self-righteous bore. His statement on Bigger's behalf is well over 10,000 words and much of this soliloquy was excised from the original 1940 edition of the novel. Max's speech is heavy with communist theorizing and Wright certainly uses Max to forward some of his own theories. Bigger is the product of black oppression and killing him will only produce new Biggers and more black violence. Max gives warning to the White. Here he is also the mouthpiece of the inarticulate Bigger.

Use of Naturalism and Impressionism in Crane’s Red Badge of Courage

In his novel “Red Badge of courage” Crane follows two narrative techniques namely impressionism and naturalism. Through his technique of impressionism Crane tries to give picture of the battlefield as well as the effects of the wars on the nature. By using his method of naturalism Crane mainly tries to portray Henry’s character.

Impressionism is a method of writing in which the author presents characters, scenes, and moods as he visualizes them at a particular moment rather than as they are in reality. The term comes from the French impressionist painter who painted an object in a few strokes thus suggesting the form rather than delineating it realistically. They were chiefly concerned with the effect of various kinds of light on an object or scene.

Crane was one of the chief impressionists of his day. Like the painters he had little sense of line. He characterized his people by giving an impression of a loud soldier, a tall soldier, a tattered soldier, or a cheerful soldier. Although the reader knows a great deal about Henry Fleming he does not know what he looks like physically.

Crane had the same concern as the painters for the effect of light on color. In the book the landscape and objects change their colors as the light changes. A river is “amber-tinted” in the early morning. Green trees and bushes appear blue in the distance. Crane describes troops on the battlefield as follows.

These battalions with their commotions were woven red and startling into the gentle fabric of softened greens and browns.

Crane has used impressionism as a painter but he also has carried this art beyond the physical level by creating images which are impressions of the mind rather than just impressions of line and color. Many of the seemingly disconnected images in the book are relevant to the emotional experiences of Henry. For instance in chapter 11 Crane repeatedly creates the image of the regiment as an insect.

1-It was now like one of those moving monsters wending with many feet.

2-There was an occasional flash and glimmer of steel from the backs of all these huge crawling reptiles.

3-They were like two serpents crawling from the cavern of the night.

4-But the long serpents crawled slowly from hill to hill without bluster of smoke.

Henry, as part of the “moving monster,” feels very much alone with his thoughts and problems. The army is like a monster to him which forces him to be part of it against his will and which makes him obey orders he cannot understand.

Naturalism is a theory of fiction which approaches life with a detached, objective, almost scientific outlook. Man is portrayed as an insignificant and helpless creature who acts according to his instincts in response to the conditions of his environment. He does not exercise his individual intelligence and free will to any great extent. He is like a puppet at the mercy of the physical conditions which surround him.

Nature is conceived of as being serene and indifferent to the troubles of mankind. Nature is not a person with attitudes, feelings, and intelligence. It is simply the natural environment and the physical forces which surround man.

Crane reflects these naturalistic concepts in The Red Badge of Courage. To Crane war is part of nature, a condition that is part of the physical environment. Crane many times repeats the idea that the individual loses his identity in the collective regimental personality. He writes of the military units as insects or machines. In the early march to the front Henry wants to run away but cannot do so.

He saw instantly that it would be impossible for him to escape from the regiment. It enclosed him and there were iron laws of tradition and law on four sides. He was in a moving box.

Henry discovers, in his flight from the battlefield, that he cannot fond refuge and consolation in nature. He goes into the dark forest seeking comfort. Instead he comes upon a ghastly corpse hidden in a “natural chapel” made of the boughs of trees. As he runs away from the scene panic-stricken, the bushes and trees seem to him to be impending his progress. Here is a picture of a youth who is helpless against his environment which is indifferent to his problems.

Crane points out the serenity of nature in contrast to the fighting that is taking place.


As he gazed around him the youth felt a flash of astonishment at the blue, pure sky and the sun gleaming on the trees and fields. It was surprising that Nature had gone tranquilly on with her golden process in the midst of so much devilment.

Crane has attempted to portray a “natural” man in the person of Henry Fleming, and “natural” actions. Henry follows his instincts when he runs from the battlefield. He later discovers that no harm was done by this action as no one knows about it and he comes to the following conclusion:

In the present, he declared to himself that it was only the doomed and the damned who roared with sincerity at circumstance. Few but they ever did it. A man with a full stomach and the respect of his fellows had no business to scold about anything that he might think to be wrong in the ways of the universe, or even with the ways of society. Let the unfortunates rail; the others may play marbles.

Later when Henry acts with great bravery he discovers that the heroic actions, too, are natural. In looking back at his actions he reflects the naturalistic conept.

He had fought like a pagan who defends his religion. Regarding it, he saw that it was fine, wild, and, in some ways, easy. He had been a tremendous figure, no doubt. By this struggle he had overcome obstacles which he had admitted to be mountains. They had fallen like paper peaks, and he was now what he called a hero. And he had not been aware of the process. He had slept, and, awakening, found himself a knight.

Narrative Technique of The Turn of the Screw

In “The Turn of the Screw” Henry James uses a narrative technique which makes the novel interesting as well as very convincing. Though, the novel is a ghost story, we sometimes forget that it is a ghost story and begin to believe what happens in this story. The credit for the achievement goes to the narrative technique used by the narrator. He uses the frame narrative structure, the first person point of view and the flash back technique.

The Turn of the Screw is unusual in that it has two narrators. One exists only in the prologue. That first narrator, who is nameless, describes the scene in an old house where a number of houseguests are telling ghost stories. He then introduces a guest, Douglas, who tells the others about the governess. The rest of the tale is Douglas's reading of the governess's story.

The governess is considered the principal narrator, and the story is told from her point of view. She is also the central character through whose eyes we see the story. James gives her thoughts and perceptions directly, and presents them through her conversations with Mrs. Grose. Mrs. Grose is what James's readers call the confidant. The confidant is a person of great sensibility or sensitivity to whom the main character reveals his or her innermost thoughts. Mrs. Grose in The Turn of the Screw has never seen any of the apparitions, but she serves as the person to whom the governess expresses her doubts and fears. Mrs. Grose, who witnessed the whole development of the situation, then says: “What a dreadful turn, to be sure, miss! Where on earth do you see anything?”

The language of the story itself creates ambiguity. Thus, James uses the linguistic principles of structuralism which claims that the linguistic units of a text are significant to its understanding.

The Turn of the Screw is based on flashback. A flashback is a writing which occurs outside of the current timeline. It is used to explain plot elements, give background and context to a scene, or explain characteristics of characters or events. The Turn of the Screw is a story within a story. To a group of people who have been trading ghost stories, a man named Douglas reads a personal account written by his sister's governess years before. His reading of this "horrible" story is prefaced by some facts about the governess's background.

Telling The Turn of the Screw from the point of view of its main participant has an enormous effect. In fact, it's the main reason for the sense of mystery surrounding the story. James develops the principles of the genre such as the treatment of the narrator's point of view in order to create a structurally-embedded ambiguity. The central situation in The Turn of the Screw involves the governess’ view of her charges. The governess is now narrating the story and that all impressions and descriptions come from her viewpoint. Everything in the novel is aimed at the central situation, but he moves toward the center by exploring all the related matters. In other words, the structure could be best described by a series of circles around the center. Each circle is an event that illuminates the center, but highlights only a part of it. Each circle then is often a discussion by several different people.

The governess’ story opens on the day she arrives at her new position. Her charges—Miles and Flora—are perfect little children who would apparently never cause anyone any trouble. She grows very fond of them in spite of the fact that little Miles has been discharged from his school. In discussing this occurrence, the governess and Mrs. Grose, the housekeeper, decide that little Miles was just too good for a regular school.

The governess loves her position and her children, and she secretly wishes that her handsome employer could see how well she is doing. At the evening she often strolls through the grounds and mediates on the beauty of her surroundings. Sometimes she wishes her employer could know how much she enjoys the place and how well she is executing her duties. One evening using her stroll, she does perceive the figure of a strange man on top of the old towers of the house. He appears rather distinct, but she is aware that he keeps his eyes on her. She feels rather disturbed without knowing why.

One Sunday as the group is preparing to go to church, the governess returns to the dining room to retrieve her gloves from the table. Inside the room she notices the strange weird face of a man staring in at her in a hard and deep manner, suddenly, she realizes that the man has “come for someone else.” Through her description Mrs Grose, the house keeper identifies him as Peter Quint, the ex-valet who has been dead for about a year.

The governess loves her position and her children, and she secretly wishes that her handsome employer could see how well she is doing. Shortly after this, she notices the form of a strange man at some distance. One day, while playing with Flora near the lake, she probably observes a figure on the other side of the lake.

One night she hears some movement outside her door and becomes alert. She opens the door and walks towards the staircase. She notices the figure of Peter Quint in the landing. From such a short distance he looks frightening.

At the stage the governess feels the heed to escape from the whole situation and run away from Bly. But she fears that the spirit might take complete possession of the children if she leaves. She decides to stay back Bly. With this intention, she returns back to the house to pack her things, she is shocked to see Miss Jessel sitting on a desk and looking at her with melancholic eyes.

One day, Miles is very happy and offers to play piano for her. The governess is delighted at the music, until she realizes that Flora is not around. Miles feigns innocence over Flora's whereabouts, so the governess seeks the aid of Mrs. Grose. Before the two women leave to search, the governess places the letter to her employer on the table for one of the servants to mail. The governess and Mrs. Grose go to the lake, where they find the boat missing. After walking around the lake, the governess finds Flora and, for the first time, asks her bluntly where Miss Jessel is. The governess points to the image of Miss Jessel as proof that the specter exists, but Mrs. Grose and Flora claim to see nothing. The ghost appears to the governess; however, Mrs. Grose sees nothing and sides with Flora, who also says that she sees nothing and never has.

James is a very careful artist who uses the technique of foreshadowing a later action. This means that he has given hints in the early parts of the novel about some important thing that is going to happen later in the story. Thus, so many things have foreshadowed the main action that the reader should not be surprised to discover the action at the end.

In The Turn of the Screw, there is every type of indication that sooner or later the governess will confront the children with the presence of one of the apparitions. When she confronts Flora with the presence of Miss Jessel, the little girl becomes sick. As a result, we are prepared to accept the fact that Miles will die from his exposure to the apparition of Peter Quint. Thus, James uses foreshadowing to prepare the reader for the climactic events of the story.

The next morning, the governess finds out from Mrs. Grose that Flora was struck with a fever during the night and that she is terrified of seeing the governess. However, Mrs. Grose does say that the governess was justified in her suspicions of Flora, because the child has started to use evil language. The governess encourages Mrs. Grose to take Flora to her uncle's house for safety and also so that she can try to gain Miles's allegiance in his sister's absence.

The governess and Miles stay in the house alone. They sit to have a meal which is dominated by silence, the maid cleaning the dishes being the only sound heard. When the governess and Miles discuss the matter of whether he took a letter she had written the day before from the hall table it was Quint who appeared in "his white face of damnation", looking intently at her like "a sentential before a prison". Her main concern at this moment is to protect the boy; it was like "fighting with a demon for a human soul". The apparition still has his eyes fixed on the governess and the boy, lurking like "a baffled beast." But the governess gathers her strength and is determined to face it. He suddenly disappears. She then asks Miles about what he did to result in his being expelled from school, and they have a very long conversation. Eventually she is able to get the truth out of him. He also admits to stealing a letter that the governess had finally decided to send to his uncle. During their talk, Quint's ghost reappears to the governess. Miles ask if it is Miss Jessel, but she forces him to admit that it is Peter Quint. He turns suddenly around to look and falls in her arms. The governess clutches him, but instead of a triumph she discovers that she is holding Miles’ dead body.

James’ fictional techniques are admirably focused in The Turn of the Screw. James adopts a highly emotional, somewhat melodramatic, and intensely personal tone in writing the Governess's narrative.