Define pragmatics. What are the goals of pragmatics?

Pragmatics is a systematic way of explaining language use in context. It seeks to explain aspects of meaning which cannot be found in the plain sense of words or structures, as explained by semantics. As a field of language study, pragmatics is fairly new. Its origins lie in philosophy of language and the American philosophical school of pragmatism. As a discipline within language science, its roots lie in the work of (Herbert) Paul Grice on conversational implicature and the cooperative principle, and on the work of Stephen Levinson, Penelope Brown and Geoff Leech on politeness.

Pragmatics involves three major communication skills:

• Using language for different purposes, such as
• greeting (e.g., hello, goodbye)
• informing (e.g., I'm going to get a cookie)
• demanding (e.g., Give me a cookie)
• promising (e.g., I'm going to get you a cookie)
• requesting (e.g., I would like a cookie, please)
• Changing language according to the needs of a listener or situation, such as
• talking differently to a baby than to an adult
• giving background information to an unfamiliar listener
• speaking differently in a classroom than on a playground
• Following rules for conversations and storytelling, such as
• taking turns in conversation
• introducing topics of conversation
• staying on topic
• rephrasing when misunderstood
• how to use verbal and nonverbal signals
• how close to stand to someone when speaking
• how to use facial expressions and eye contact

These rules may vary across cultures and within cultures. It is important to understand the rules of your communication partner.

What does pragmatics include?

The lack of a clear consensus appears in the way that no two published accounts list the same categories of pragmatics in quite the same order. But among the things you should know about are:

• Speech act theory
• Felicity conditions
• Conversational implicature
• The cooperative principle
• Conversational maxims
• Relevance
• Politeness
• Phatic tokens
• Deixis

Allophone

An allophone is a phonetic variant of a phoneme in a particular language. In phonology, an allophone (from the Greek: állos, "other") is one of a set of multiple possible spoken sounds (or phones) used to pronounce a single phoneme.[1] For example, [pʰ] (as in pin) and [p] (as in spin) are allophones for the phoneme /p/ in the English language.

Examples (English)

 •         [p] and [pH] are allophones of the phoneme /p/.

•          [t] and [tH] are allophones of the phoneme /t/.

What is a clause? Discuss the Clause Structure in English

We represent our experiences linguistically by packaging information into clauses. As such, clauses can be considered to be the key unit of grammar. They are units of information structured around a verb phrase (VP) and, according to some theories, a basic clause must consist minimally of a Subject and a verb.

For now, we will examine the seven basic clause structures in English that are built around a verb phrase:

1. SVO
2. SV
3. SVA
4. SVC
5. SVOC
6. SVOA
7. SVOO

SVO structure

English syntax generally follows a Subject-Verb-Object (SVO) order. Consider the following example.

the boy hugged the dog

We see that the Subject of the clause (the thing or person performing the action) is the boy; the Verb, which describes the particular action, is hugged, and the Object (the thing undergoing the action) is the dog. This clause can, therefore, be represented as follows.

Subject	Verb	Object
the boy	hugged	the dog

We have also noted how both the Subject and Object are represented by noun phrases and that the Verb is represented, as it must always be, by a verb phrase. Further examples of the basic SVO structure include the following.

Subject	Verb	Object
my dad	washed	his car
your friend	was opening	the door
Verity	is throwing	a ball

The basic SVO structure of English syntax can be modified in a number of ways but there are two main methods. The first is to remove or replace a functional element and the second is to add another functional element to the three-part structure.

SV structure

The basic Subject-Verb-Object structure can be reduced to produce a clause with the structure Subject-Verb (SV), e.g.

Subject	Verb
Anila	kicked
my mother	is drilling
the girl	laughed
Li Wei	went

A point to note here is that some verbs may take an Object, and thereby be expanded into the basic SVO structure, whereas some may not. Consider the first example Anila kicked. This SV structure could be expanded into an SVO structure as follows.

Subject	Verb	Object
Anila	kicked	the ball

Similarly, the second example my mother is drilling could also be expanded into an SVO clause, e.g.

Subject	Verb	Object
my mother	is drilling	a hole

Verbs such as kick and drill that are capable of taking an Object are referred to as transitive verbs. However, not all verbs are capable of taking an Object. Consider the verb laugh in the third example the girl laughed. It is not possible to expand this utterance into an SVO structure, e.g.

Subject	Verb	Object
the girl	laughed	it

It is evident that this utterance is syntactically incorrect because laugh is incapable of taking an Object. Similarly, the verb go in the fourth example Li Wei went is also not capable of taking an Object. So, for example, the following construction is also syntactically incorrect.

Subject	Verb	Object
Li Wei	went	it

Verbs such as laugh and go that do not take an Object are known as intransitive verbs.

SVA structure

The Object in the basic SVO structure can be substituted by an Adjunct that supplies further detail about actions, events and states. Adjuncts are most often optional elements that provide information related to manner, time, location or cause. Consider the following.

Subject	Verb	Adjunct
the small child	cried	very loudly	[Adjunct of manner]
my friend	left	that evening	[Adjunct of time]
Sarah	lives	in America	[Adjunct of location]
she	has been sad	since you left	[Adjunct of cause]

We noted earlier that Adjuncts may be represented by adverb phrases, noun phrases and prepositional phrases. From the above examples, the Adjunct of manner in the small child cried very loudly is represented by the adverb phrase very loudly. Further examples of Adjuncts represented by adverb phrases include the following.

Subject	Verb	Adjunct (AdvP)
Rooney	played	superbly
my charming son	was hovering	rather sheepishly
she	would behave	so bravely

From the previous examples, the Adjunct of time in my friend left that evening is represented not by an adverb phrase but by a noun phrase, that evening. Further examples of Adjuncts represented by noun phrases include the following.

Subject	Verb	Adjunct (NP)
the boy	ran	two miles
your fourth cousin	sang	this afternoon
Ravi	shouted	that morning

The Adjunct of location in Sarah lives in America from the earlier examples is represented by a prepositional phrase, in America. Further examples of prepositional phrases functioning as Adjuncts include the following.

Subject	Verb	Adjunct (PrepP)
Robert	ran	to the door
Helen’s brother	played	after his dinner
the ball	was bouncing	on the pitch

SVC structure

There is a fundamental difference between an Object and a Complement. The difference is that the Subject and Object refer to different things whereas the Subject and Complement (in a SVC clause) refer to the same thing. Consider the following.

Subject	Verb	Object
Julie	stroked	the cat

In this clause, the Subject refers to one thing (Julie) and the Object refers to another thing (the cat), i.e. they are not the same. In contrast, the Subject and Complement refer to the same thing, e.g.

Subject	Verb	Complement
Dawn	seems	happy

In this clause, the Complement (happy) makes reference to the same thing as the Subject (Dawn), i.e. it is Dawn that is happy. Other examples include the following.

Subject	Verb	Complement (AdjP)
Brian	went	mad
this book	is	rather terrible
my mother	appeared	sad

It should be apparent from all of these examples that the Complement refers to the same thing as the Subject, i.e. Brian is mad, the book is terrible, the mother is sad. In all the examples provided above, the Complement has been represented by an adjective phrase consisting of just a head adjective (mad, terrible, sad). However, we have indicated that Complements may also be represented by noun phrases. For example:

Subject	Verb	Complement (NP)
the witch	changed into	an ant
Adam	was born	a hero
Kathryn	became	the dentist

Again we see that the Subject and Complement refer to the same thing, i.e. the witch is the ant, Adam is the hero, Kathryn is the dentist. In each of these examples, the Complement is represented by a noun phrase made up of an identifier and a head noun (an ant, a hero, the dentist).

SVOC structure

Recall that, as well as removing or replacing an element in the basic SVO structure, we can also add other elements. One possibility is to append a Complement, i.e. SVOC. We have seen that when a Complement fills the same position as the Object in the SVO structure then the Complement refers to the same thing as the Subject. However, the Complement refers to the same thing as the Object when it follows the Object. For example:

Subject	Verb	Object	Complement
Paul	considered	your ideas	rather silly

It is apparent in this example that the Complement (very silly) refers to the same thing as the Object (your ideas), i.e. it is the ideas that are very silly and not Paul that is very silly. Other examples include:

Subject	Verb	Object	Complement
Cole	found	the game	frustrating
the mussels	made	Rupinder	ill
Duncan	designed	the room	rather dark

In each of these examples we see that the Object and the Complement refer to the same thing, i.e. it is the game that is frustrating and not Cole that is frustrating; it is Rupinder who is ill and not the mussels, and it is the room that is dark and not Duncan.

SVOA structure

As well as adding a Complement to the fundamental SVO structure, we can also add an Adjunct. Recall that Adjuncts are discretionary elements that supply extra information related to manner, time, location, and so on. Consider the following.

Subject	Verb	Object	Adjunct
the boy	hugged	the dog	gently

In this utterance the Adjunct function is represented by an adverb phrase that consists of just the head adverb gently. This Adjunct provides additional information regarding the manner in which the Subject, the boy, carried out an action on the Object, the dog. We now realize that this action was carried out gently. Here is a further example.

Subject	Verb	Object	Adjunct
the man	held	the woman	so softly

In this clause, the Adjunct is again represented by an adverb phrase, this time consisting of the head adverb softly that is pre-modified by the intensifying adverb so. Once more, this is an Adjunct of manner that describes how the Subject, the man, performed the action of holding on the Object, the woman. Here are some further examples of SVOA structures.

Subject	Verb	Object	Adjunct
Graeme	wrote	his essay	quickly	[Adjunct of manner]
the therapists	assessed	the children	yesterday	[Adjunct of time]
Daniel	cleaned	his flat	in London	[Adjunct of location]

SVOO structure

The final English clause structure involves the addition of a second Object to the primary SVO structure, i.e. SVOO. When two Objects are included in a clause a distinction is made between the direct object (Od) and the indirect object (Oi). The direct object is the thing or person undergoing an action, being talked about, and so on, and the indirect object is the person who is the recipient or beneficiary of the action. Consider the following example.

Subject	Verb	Indirect Object	Direct Object
Anna	gave	her mother	a beautiful card

In this example, the thing undergoing the action is a beautiful card, i.e. it is the card that is being given. This is, therefore, the direct object. The person who benefits from the action is her mother, i.e. the beautiful card is given to the mother. This is, therefore, the indirect object. Consider a further example.

Subject	Verb	Indirect Object	Direct Object
Graham	sent	Margaret	his love

In this clause the thing undergoing the action of being sent is his love, i.e. it is Graham’s love that is being sent. This is, therefore, the direct object. The recipient of the action is Margaret, i.e. she is the one who receives Graham’s love. This is, therefore, the indirect object. Further examples of SVOO clauses are given below.

Subject	Verb	Indirect Object	Direct Object
Alex	sent	Ryan	his regards
the twins	shipped	their friends	the carved clock
Sheila	tossed	Amerjit	my shuttlecock